STUDENT
PAPER NO.3
STEPHEN
SUMMERS and Stuart Birks
CENTRE
FOR PUBLIC POLICY EVALUATION
2000
Student
Paper No.03
Price
$15
Published
by
Centre
for Public Policy Evaluation
College
of Business, Massey University
Palmerston
North
NEW ZEALAND
July 2000
Click here for contents, etc. as a pdf file
Chapter One: Introduction (pdf)
Chapter
Two: The Education Sector and
the Gender Wage Gap (pdf)
Chapter Three: Occupation and Family Responsibilities and the Gender Wage Gap (pdf)
Chapter Four: The Gender Wage Gap: Theories and Policies (pdf)
Chapter Five: Summary and Conclusions (pdf)
Appendices (pdf) Note that Appendix B is incomplete in the .pdf version. It is available here in .html.
References (pdf)
Figure
Page
2.2.1
Attendance of 5th Year Students at New Zealand
Secondary Schools, 1965-1995.
6
2.2.2
Attendance of 6th Year and Over Students at New
Zealand Secondary Schools,
1965-1995.
7
2.2.3
School Participation Rates by Age and Sex, 1997.
7
2.2.4
Retention Rates for 14-16 Year Olds, 1986-1998.
8
2.2.5
Retention Rates for 14-17 Year Olds, 1986-1998.
8
2.2.6
Retention Rates for 14-18 Year Olds, 1986-1998.
9
2.8.1
Total Number of Students Attending New Zealand Universities by
Gender,
1965-1997.
23
2.8.2
Internal Full-Time Students Attending New Zealand Universities by
Gender,
1965-1997.
23
2.8.3
Internal Part-Time Students Attending New Zealand Universities by
Gender,
1965-1991.
24
2.8.4
Extramural Students Attending New Zealand Universities by Gender,
1965-1991. 23
2.8.5
New Zealand Secondary Students Enrolled in Seventh Form
Accounting,
1965, 1970, 1975, 1980, 1985 and 1990.
28
2.8.6
Bachelor Degrees in Accounting Awarded in New Zealand,
1975, 1980, 1985 and 1990.
29
2.8.7
New Zealand Secondary School Students Enrolled in Seventh Form
Economics,
1965, 1970, 1975, 1980, 1985 and 1990.
29
2.8.8
Bachelor Degrees in Economics Awarded in New Zealand,
1965, 1970, 1975, 1980 and 1989.
29
2.8.9
Bachelor Degrees in Engineering Awarded in New Zealand,
1970, 1975, 1980, 1985, 1990 and 1995.
31
2.8.10
Bachelor Degrees in Psychology in New Zealand,
1965, 1970, 1975, 1980, 1985 and 1989.
32
2.9.1
Students Enrolled in Primary Teacher Training in New Zealand,
33
1965, 1970, 1975, 1980, 1985 and 1990.
2.9.2
Students Enrolled in Secondary Teacher Training in New Zealand,
1965, 1970, 1975, 1980, 1985 and 1990.
34
3.1.1
Labour Force Participation Rates for Males and Females in New
Zealand,
1971, 1976, 1981, 1986, 1991 and 1996.
39
3.1.2
Percentage Change in Number of Males and Females Employed in New
Zealand,
1971-1976, 1976-1981.
40
3.1.3
Percentage Change in Number of Males and Females Employed in New
Zealand,
1986-1991, 1991-1996.
41
3.2.1
Breakdown of New Zealand Part-Time Workers by Hours Employed Per
Week,
1996.
42
3.2.2
Breakdown of New Zealand Full-Time Workers by Hours Employed Per
Week,
1996.
43
3.8.1
Total Earnings for the Female/Male Ratio of Average Hourly
Earnings (1988-1998)
and Average Weekly Earnings (1977-1998) in New Zealand.
62
3.8.2
Total Earnings for the Female/Male Ratio of Average Hourly
and Weekly Ordinary Time in New Zealand, 1973-1998.
62
3.8.3
Total Earnings for the Female/Male Ratio of Average Hourly
And Weekly Overtime in New Zealand, 1973-1998.
62
3.8.4
Full-Time Workers by Age Bracket in New Zealand, 1996.
64
3.8.5
Part-Time Workers by Age Bracket in New Zealand, 1996.
65
3.8.6
Ratio of the Percentage of the Female/Male Ratio of Incomes for
those
Earning $40,000+ in 1986, 1991 and 1996.
79
4.2.1
Unemployment Rate for Males and Females in New Zealand,
1971, 1976, 1981, 1986, 1991 and 1996.
Table
Page
2.2.1
Percentage Change in Age Group for the Total New Zealand
Population,
1966-1996.
5
2.2.2
Numbers of Pupils Attending New Zealand Secondary Schools, 1965-1995.
6
2.2.3
Highest Attainment of School Leavers by Gender, 1987-1997.
9
2.2.4
Percentage of Sitting Students Awarded Higher Grades in New
Zealand, 1997.
10
2.3.1
Subjects Taken by All New Zealand Secondary School Students in
Form Five
at 1 July, 1965, 1970, 1975, 1980, 1985 and 1990.
11
2.3.2
Subjects Taken by All New Zealand Secondary School Students in
Form Six
at 1 July, 1965, 1970, 1975, 1980, 1985 and 1990.
13
2.3.3
Subjects Taken by All New Zealand Secondary School Students in
Form Seven
at 1 July, 1965, 1970, 1975, 1980, 1985 and 1990.
14
2.3.4
Percentage of Year 3 School Certificate Students Gaining
A or B Grades in Selected Subjects, 1996.
17
2.3.5
New Zealand University Bursaries/Entrance Scholarship
Examinations:
Percentage of Papers Graded S, A or B in Selected Subjects, 1997.
17
2.7.1
Destination of 1996 School Leavers in Further Education and
Training in July, 1997. 22
2.8.1
Courses taken by Full-Time and Part-Time Students in New Zealand,
1965, 1970, 1975, 1980, 1985, 1990 and 1995.
25
2.8.2
Enrolments for Degrees in at New Zealand Universities, 1998.
30
2.9.1
Enrolments in Technical Education in New Zealand, 1965 and 1970.
34
2.9.3
Full-Time Occupations for the New Zealand Population Aged 40-65+,
1996.
35
3.1.1
Number of Male and Female Workers Employed Full-Time and Part-Time
in
New Zealand, 1971, 1976, 1981, 1986, 1991 and 1996.
40
3.3.1
Number of Female-Dominated Occupations and Percentage of Females
Employed
in them using 60, 70, 80 and 90 Percent Definitions, in New
Zealand,
1971, 1976, 1981, 1986, 1991 and 1996.
45
3.3.2
Number of Male-Dominated Occupations and Percentage of Males
Employed
in them using 60, 70, 80 and 90 Percent Definitions, in New
Zealand,
1971, 1976, 1981, 1986, 1991 and 1996.
46
3.4.1
Percentage of the EMLF Employed in the Seven Main Occupational
Classifications
in New Zealand, 1971, 1976, 1981, 1986, 1991 and 1996.
47
3.4.2
Percentage of the EFLF Employed in the Seven Main Occupational
Classifications
in New Zealand, 1971, 1976, 1981, 1986, 1991 and 1996.
48
3.4.3
The Highest Male-Dominated Occupations (Based on Percentage Male
in
Each Occupation) in New Zealand, 1971, 1976 and 1981.
49
3.4.4
The Highest Female-Dominated Occupations (Based on Percentage
Female in
Each Occupation) in New Zealand, 1971, 1976 and 1981.
50
3.4.5
The Highest Male-Dominated Occupations (Based on Percentage Male
in Each Occupation) in New Zealand, 1986, 1991 and 1996.
50
3.4.6
The Highest Female-Dominated Occupations (Based on Percentage
Female in
Each Occupation) in New Zealand, 1986, 1991 and 1996.
51
3.5.1
The MM, ID and SR* Indices of Horizontal Occupational Segregation
in New Zealand, 1971, 1976, 1981, 1986, 1991 and 1996.
54
3.6.1
Summary of Results for CMD, SMD and St Indices for New
Zealand Studies,
1956, 1961, 1966, 1971, 1976, 1981 and 1986.
57
3.6.2
The CMD, SMD and St Measurement of Vertical Gender
Segregation for
White-Collar Workers in New Zealand, 1971, 1976, 1981, 1986, 1991
and 1996. 58
3.6.3
The CMD, SMD and St Measurement of Vertical Gender
Segregation for
All Workers in New Zealand, 1971, 1976, 1981, 1986, 1991 and 1996.
59
3.8.1
Percentage of Female Workers in the 20-24 and 25-29 Age Bracket
in New Zealand,
1986, 1991 and 1996.
67
3.8.2
Percentage of Male Workers in the 20-24 and 25-29 Age Bracket in
New Zealand,
1986, 1991 and 1996.
68
3.8.3
Average Salary Comparisons for Diploma/Bachelor Graduates in New
Zealand,
1991 and 1996.
69
3.8.4
Average Salary Comparisons for Postgraduates in New Zealand, 1991
and 1996. 71
3.8.5
Female/Male Earnings Ratio for Recent Graduates in New Zealand,
1975, 1980, 1985, 1990 and 1993.
72
3.8.6
Female/Male Earnings Ratio for Recent Graduates in New Zealand,
1996 and 1997. 73
4.5.1
Work Fatalities and Injuries in the New Zealand Work Force,
Financial Year, 1989/90.
91
American Association
of University Women
AAUW
Crude Measure of
Differentiation
CMD
Equal Employment
Opportunities
EEO
Employment Contracts
Act
ECA
Employment Equity
Act
EEA
Equal Pay Act
EPA
Equivalent Male
Labour Force
EMLF
Equivalent Female
Labour Force
EFLF
Gini Coefficient
Index
G
Human Rights
Commission Act
HRCA
Index of
Dissimilarity
ID
Marginal Matching
Index
MM
National
Longitudinal Survey
NLS
not applicable
n.a
not elsewhere
classified
n.e.c
Public Service
Association
PSA
Scholastic Aptitude
Test
SAT
Sex Ratio Index
SR
St Ratio
St
Standardised Measure
of Differentiation
SMD
Standardised Sex
Ratio Index
SR*
Third International
Mathematics and Science Study
TIMSS
Women and Employment
Index
WE
I wish to thank all those lecturers and fellow students within the various departments at Massey University for their contributions and ideas towards this thesis. Especially, I would like to take this opportunity to gratefully acknowledge that I am indebted to my supervisor Stuart Birks for his time, assistance and ideas that he bestowed on me. Also, I wish to thank my partner for spending many hours editing and checking my thesis, and for the encouragement and ideas she gave me.
This thesis is dedicated to my mother and father who have always provided love and support throughout my life and encouraged me to make the most of every opportunity presented.
* This is a revised version of a thesis by Stephen Summers, supervised by Stuart Birks, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for a Master of Business Studies. It is a significant development beyond earlier unpublished work in this general area that was undertaken by Stuart Birks, Gary Buurman, Cameron Wheeler, Kevin Heagney and Timothy Savell in 1997 and 1998.
This
thesis focuses on the issue of the gender wage gap in New Zealand
that has been a prevalent topic in most countries and in a
variety of academic circles over recent decades. Those who
conclude that females are still being discriminated against in
the labour market point to the use of a combination of policies,
such as affirmative action and comparable worth, as a possible
solution. Opponents to this view contend that there are
many reasons that, combined, explain why females often earn less
than their male counterparts. This thesis, encompassing a variety
of statistics, illustrates that females have made, and continue
to make, strong progress in all facets of the labour market.
Thus, in conclusion, legislation to introduce new policies to
narrow any gap is a road fraught with too many dangers and one
that we do not need to go down.
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